Table 1 Ecological studies that have used 3D printing
From: Benefits and limitations of three-dimensional printing technology for ecological research
| Research topic | Taxa | Objects printed | Print medium | Sample size | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behavioral ecology | |||||
| Egg rejection behavior in context of brood parasitism | Brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) | Cowbird eggs that varied in size/shape, then painted different colors | “White strong and flexible plastic, polished” | 80 | [27] |
| Effect of corolla shape on pollinator behavior | Hawkmoth (Manduca sexta) | Flowers that varied in corolla shape based on specific mathematical parameters | Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic | NR | [30] |
| Effects of visual and olfactory floral traits in attracting pollinators | Mushroom-mimicking orchid (Dracula lafleurii) | Molds to make silicon flowers | Cyanoacrylate impregnated gympsum | NR | [31] |
| Effect of nectar caffeine concentrations on pollination service | Bumble Bees (Bombus impatiens) | Structures that functioned like corollas over glass jars containing artificial nectar | Plastic (type non-specified) | Min. 18 | [29] |
| Social behavior of zebrafish in response to varying stimuli | Zebrafish (Danio rerio) | Predatory fish model robot shoals comprising 3 zebrafish that varied in body size plus anchoring materials biologically-inspired zebrafish replica |
ABS plastic ABS plastic ABS plastic |
1 4 shoals 1 |
[68] [28] [45] |
| Influence of female body size on mate choice by males | Northern map turtles (Graptemys geographica) | Replicas of female turtles that differed in body size | ABS plastic | 4 | [32] |
| Evaluation of 3D printing as suitable method for field predation model studies | Brown anole (Anolis sagrei) | Lizard models using 2 print media, covered in clay, and field-tested for predation | ABS plastic, plastic-wood hybrid filament | 17 | This study |
| Thermal ecology | |||||
| Comparing thermodynamics of 3D printed and copper lizard models | Texas horned lizard (Phrynosoma cornutum) | Thermal models of lizards | ABS plastic | 10 | [13] |
| Tools—experimental areas | |||||
| Evaluation of 3D printed soil as suitable for fungal colonization | Plant pathogenic fungus (Rhizoctonia solani) | Artificial soil from 3D scans of soil with varying micropore structure | Nylon 12 | 10 | [33] |
| Comparing hydraulic properties of 3D printed soil relative to real soil | Soil | Artificial soil from 3D scans of soil | Resin (Visijet Crystal EX 200 Plastic Material) | 14 | [34] |
| Microscale bacterial cell–cell interactions | Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphlylococcus aureus | “Designer” bacterial ecosystems that vary in size, geometry and spatial distance with exact starting quantities of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus | Gelatin | NR | [47, 48] |
| Effect of interstitial space on predator–prey interactions | Blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) and Mud crab (Eurypanopeous depressus) | Oyster shells aggregated into artificial reefs that varied in interstitial space configuration | Polylactic or ABS plastic | NR | [36] |
| Tools—sampling equipment | |||||
| Collecting unobtrusive biological samples from whales | Southern right, humpback and sperm whales | Components to build an unmanned surface vehicle for oceanographic research (SnotBot) | ABS plastic and nylon | 1 | [39] |
| Tools for studying the impact of ambrosia beetles on trees | Shot hole borer beetle (Euwallacea fornicatus) | Components for entry devices and emergence traps | ABS plastic | 15 | [38] |
| Testing decoys vs real beetles to enhance trap capture rates | Emerald ash borer beetle (Agrilus planipennis) | Beetle decoy to use on traps | ABS plastic | 300 | [12] |